The Religion of Sunni Islam –  History, Beliefs, and Countries Where Ibadi Muslims Live

Islam is commonly described as having two major branches—Sunni and Shia—but this simplified view overlooks a third, historically significant tradition known as Ibadi Islam. Although smaller in number, Ibadi Muslims have played an important role in Islamic history and continue to shape the religious and political life of several regions today. This article explains what Ibadi Islam is, traces its historical development, and lists the countries where Ibadi Muslims are found in the modern world.

What Is Ibadi Islam?

Ibadi Islam is a distinct Islamic school that is neither Sunni nor Shia, although it shares theological elements with both. It emerged during the early decades of Islamic history and developed its own religious interpretations, legal traditions, and communal values. Today, Ibadi Islam is best known as the dominant form of Islam in Oman, making it the only country in the world where Ibadi Muslims form a majority.

Ibadi Islam emphasizes moderation, justice, communal harmony, and moral responsibility. Unlike extremist movements often associated—incorrectly—with early Islamic dissent, Ibadism is historically known for pragmatism and tolerance, especially in societies where Ibadis lived alongside followers of other Islamic schools and religions

Origins of Ibadi Islam

Early Islamic Context

Ibadi Islam emerged in the 7th century CE, shortly after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. This was a period of intense political and theological debate within the Muslim community, particularly concerning leadership, governance, and moral authority.

The roots of Ibadism are often linked to the broader Kharijite movement, which arose during the first Islamic civil wars. However, Ibadis later distanced themselves from radical Kharijite factions, rejecting violence and extreme positions. Over time, Ibadi scholars developed an independent identity grounded in moderation, ethical leadership, and community consensus rather than rebellion

The Role of Abdallah ibn Ibad

Ibadi Islam takes its name from Abdallah ibn Ibad, an early Islamic scholar and leader active in the late 7th century. While he was not the founder in a strict sense, his teachings and political stance helped define the movement’s moderate direction.

Ibn Ibad opposed both authoritarian rulers and violent rebellion, advocating instead for reform through moral example and collective responsibility. His approach influenced the shaping of Ibadi doctrine, especially its views on governance, justice, and social order.

Core Beliefs of Ibadi Islam

Although Ibadi Islam shares the fundamental pillars of Islam—belief in one God, the Prophet Muhammad, prayer, fasting, charity, and pilgrimage—it has distinctive interpretations in several areas:

1. Leadership and Governance

Ibadis believe that a Muslim leader (imam) should be chosen based on piety, knowledge, and moral character, not lineage or political power. If a leader becomes unjust, the community has the right to remove them peacefully.

2. Community Ethics

Ibadi teachings stress unity, honesty, and social responsibility. Moral conduct is viewed as essential not only for individuals but for the health of society as a whole.

3. Religious Tolerance

Historically, Ibadi communities have demonstrated a high degree of coexistence with other Muslim sects and non-Muslims. This tradition is particularly evident in Oman, where diverse religious communities have lived side by side for centuries.

Expansion of Ibadi Islam

Spread to Oman

By the 8th century, Ibadi Islam had taken root in Oman, where geography played a key role in its survival. The country’s mountains and relative isolation allowed Ibadi communities to establish autonomous religious and political institutions, including the Ibadi Imamate, which unified much of Oman under Ibadi leadership.

North Africa and the Rustamid Dynasty

Ibadi missionaries were also active in North Africa, particularly in present-day Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. In the late 8th century, Ibadis founded the Rustamid Dynasty in Tahert (modern Algeria), creating a center of learning, trade, and religious scholarship. Although this state eventually fell in the 10th century, Ibadi communities continued to survive in isolated regions.

East Africa

Through Omani trade networks, Ibadi Islam spread to East Africa, especially Zanzibar and coastal areas of present-day Tanzania. These communities remain an important part of the region’s Islamic heritage.

Ibadi Islam in the Modern World

Oman: The Heart of Ibadi Islam

Oman is the only country where Ibadi Muslims form a majority of the population. Ibadi principles have strongly influenced Omani political culture, contributing to the country’s reputation for neutral diplomacy, internal stability, and religious tolerance.

Minority Communities Elsewhere

Outside Oman, Ibadi Muslims live mainly as minorities. Despite their smaller numbers, these communities maintain strong religious traditions, educational institutions, and communal identity.

Countries Where Ibadi Muslims Live Today

Below is a list of countries where Ibadi Islam is practiced, either as a majority or minority faith:

Countries with Significant Ibadi Populations

1. Oman – The only Ibadi-majority country

2. Tanzania – Especially in Zanzibar

3. Algeria – Concentrated in the M’zab Valley

4. Libya – Mainly in the Nafusa Mountains

5. Tunisia – Particularly on the island of Djerba

Smaller Ibadi Communities

6. Kenya

7. United Arab Emirates

8. Saudi Arabia (small communities)

9. Yemen (historical presence)

These populations reflect centuries of migration, trade, and religious scholarship rather than modern missionary expansion

Ibadi Islam Compared to Sunni and Shia Islam

While Sunni and Shia Islam dominate the Muslim world numerically, Ibadi Islam represents a third path shaped by early Islamic debates yet refined through centuries of practical governance and communal living.

Key differences include:

• A unique approach to political authority

• Emphasis on moral accountability over sectarian identity

• A tradition of coexistence rather than confrontation

Despite these differences, Ibadis recognize other Muslims as part of the broader Islamic community.

Ibadi Islam is one of the oldest surviving traditions in the Muslim world, rooted in early Islamic history yet highly relevant today. From its origins in the 7th century to its modern presence in Oman, North Africa, and East Africa, Ibadism has demonstrated resilience, moderation, and adaptability.

Understanding Ibadi Islam offers a richer and more accurate picture of Islamic diversity—one that goes beyond the usual Sunni-Shia framework. As global interest in religious pluralism grows, Ibadi Islam stands as an important example of how faith, ethics, and governance can coexist in a balanced and peaceful way.